Bob Marley Biography

Source:
Robert Nesta Marley
BORN: February 6, 1945, St. Ann, Jamaica
DIED: May 11, 1981, Miami, FL

In the year 1944, Captain Norval Marley married a young Jamaican girl named Cedalla Booker. On February 6, 1945 at two thirty in the morning their son, Robert Nesta Marley was born in his grandfather's house. Soon after Bob was born his father left his mother. He did however give financial support and occasionally returned to see his son.

It was now the late fifties, jobs were scarce in Jamaica, so Bob followed his mother from their home in St. Ann to Trenchtown (West Kingston) to seek employment in the big city. Trenchtown got it's name because it was built over a ditch which drained the sewage of old Kingston. In Trenchtown Bob spent a lot of his time with his good friend Neville Livingstone who people called by his nickname, Bunny. Also in the big city Bob was more exposed to the music which he had loved, including such greats as Fats Domino and Ray Charles. Bob and Bunny attended a music class together which was held by the famous Jamaican singer Joe Higgs. In that class they met Peter Macintosh and soon became good friends.

In the meantime Jamaican music evolving and became very popular throughout the Caribbean due to it's invention of Ska music. When Bob was 16, he started to follow his dream of becoming a musician. Music to many young Jamaicans was an escape from the harshness of everyday life. One of those kids was Jimmy Cliff who at the age of 14 had already recorded a couple of hits. After meeting Bob, Jimmy introduced him to Leslie Kong, a local record producer. Bob followed his advice and auditioned for Leslie Kong. Bob's musical talents shone much more brightly then anyone else that day and found himself in the studio recording his first single "Judge Not". Unfortunately neither "Judge Not" nor his 1962 single "One more cup of Coffee" did very well. Bob soon left Kong after she failed to give him his pay.

The following year Bob, Bunny and some other friends formed the Wailing Wailers. The didn't get off to a great start, after just a couple recording sessions two members, Cherry and Junior Braithwait left the band. The band continued on and were introduced to Clemet Dodd, a producer of the record company Coxsone. It was here where the Wailing Wailers recorded the first song "Simmer Down" which did quite well in Jamaica. To help with the recording of their songs the studio provided several talented Ska musicians. The Wailing Wailers consisting now of Bob Marley, Peter Tosh and Bunny were starting to become quite popular locally. Their audiences rapidly grew and they recorded several more songs on the Coxsone label which included "It Hurts to be Alone" and "Rule the Roadie" Bob soon took on the role of the leader, being the main songwriter and all.

Bob's life continued to look more bright on February 10, 1966 when Bob Marley married girlfriend Rita Anderson. The next day Bob left for the United States to visit his mother who lived in Delaware. While in the US he worked to better finance his music and soon returned home. When Bob Marley returned the Wailing Wailers' music evolved from Ska to Rock Steady. This evolution conflicted with Coxsone who wanted a Ska band. So the newly Wailing Wailers left Coxsone to form and renamed themselves the Wailers. Instead of looking around for a new label the Wailers decided to form their own which they called Wail 'N' Soul. This coincided with the birth of the Marley's first born who they named Cedalla. They released a couple signals on their label such as "Bend down low" and "Mellow Mood" before it folded the very same year.

The ending of their label affected the band greatly, it wasn't until they met Lee Perry that they got back on track. With the help of Lee Perry the Wailers produced such great tracks as "Duppy Conquerer", "Soul Rebel", "400 Years" and "Small Axe".

1970 saw the Wailers family grow with the addition of Aston "Family Man" Barret and his brother Carleton. The Wailers were now quite popular throughout the Caribbean but still internationally unknown. With this popularity a second more successful label was formed by the Wailers called Tuff Gong after a nickname of Bob Marley. The Wailers met Johnny Nash and soon Bob accompanied Nash to Sweden and London. When in London, Bob recorded "Reggae on Broadway" which was released by CBS. After this the rest of the Wailers arrived in London to help promote the single only to find that there were out of money and stranded there. With little options available, Bob went into the Island Records Basing Street Studios and asked to speak to the boss, Chris Blackwell with hopes of a possible record deal.

Mr. Blackwell had already heard of the Wailers and signed them on the spot. He advanced them eight thousand pounds so that they could fly back home and record their first album for Island. This was a massive deal, for the first time a reggae band would have access to the finest recording facilities. The album they released was "Catch a Fire", it was very well received by critics and was one of the first reggae albums. Before the Wailers reggae was sold on signals or compilation albums.

In the Spring of 1973 the Wailers arrived back in London to kick off their three month tour of Britain. At the conclusion of the tour they returned back to Jamaica where Bunny decided to quit touring. He was replaced by Joe Higgs. The Wailers along with Higgs travelled to the US were they were scheduled to open 17 shows for the number one black act in the States, Sly and the Family Stone. The Wailers were fired after 4 shows because they were more popular then they band the opened for, the crowd often chanted "Wail-ers" well into the Sly and the Family Stone set. Also they opened a couple dates for Bruce Springsteen. After Sly and the Family Stone axed the Wailers they found themselves once again without money and stranded, this time in Las Vegas. Somehow they found their way to San Fransico. While there they did a live concert broadcast for the radio station KSAN-FM. The whole experience boosted their popularity in North America.

With 1973 winding down the Wailers released the much anticipated follow up album to "Catch a Fire" called "Burnin". On this album many Wailer classics appear such as "I shot the Sheriff" and "Get Up Stand Up". The Wailers popularity in North America grew even more when Eric Clapton re-recorded "I Shot the Sheriff", becoming a number one hit on the US singles charts.

1975 saw the release of the Wailers's third album, "Natty Dread" with such great tracks as "Talking Blues", "No Woman No Cry" and "Revolution". On the down side though two thirds of the original Wailing Wailers, Peter Tosh and Bunny Wailer quit the band to pursue solo careers. This caused the band to change their name again. This time to Bob Marley and the Wailers. The departure of the two members created a hole in the backing vocal section, this hole was filled and then some by the I-Threes (Rita Marley, Judy Mowatts and Marcia Grittiths). That summer the band started a new European tour. Two of those shows were at the Lyceum Ballroom, both shows were considered among the top of the decade.

Both shows were recorded and made the album "Live!" which included the unforgettable live version "No Woman No Cry" which was a world wide hit. The band underwent more changes with the addition of Al Anderson and Bernard Harvey who were later replaced by Junior Marvin and Tyrone Downie. The last time the original Wailers ever played together was at a Stevie Wonder concert for the Jamaican Institute for the blind. Bob Marley and the Wailers continued their roll releasing the incredible album "Rasta man Vibration" in 1976. This capped off a type of Reggae-Mania happening in the states. Rolling Stone named them band of the year. On the Rasta man Vibration album was the powerful track "War" which lyrics came from a speech given by Emperor Haile Selassie. Bob Marley decided to play a free concert at Kingston's National Heroes Park on December 5, 1976.

The idea behind the concert was a peaceful message against the ghetto wars happening in Trenchtown at the time. Tragedy struck two days before that he get on stage, gunmen broke into the Marley home and shot at Bob, Rita, and two friends. Luckily no one was killed. Despite this Bob Marley went on to put on a memorable show two days later at the Smile Jamaica concert. Following the show the band left for the UK. While they were there they recorded 1977's "Exodus". Possibly their best album to date, it solidified the band's international stardom. It went number one in many countries including England and Germany. It was also one of the top albums of the year.

During their European tour, the band did a week of shows at the Rainbow Theatre in London. It was at the start of the tour when Bob injured his toe playing football. It was later diagnosed as cancerous. Also during this tour Bob received a very important ring, who's previous owner was the Ethiopian Emperor. In May Bob was informed of his cancer. His cancer would most certainly be taken care of by amputating the toe but Bob refused. To do so would be against his Rastafarian faith. With this news the remainder of the Exodus tour was cancelled. His illness didn't prevent him from recording music though, 1978 saw the release of "Kaya" which had a much more mellow sound then previous albums. Bob was accused of selling out because many of the songs were love songs or tributes to ganja (marijuana). Rastafarians believed the smoking the holy herb would bring them closer to Jah (god).

In April 1978, Bob returned to Jamaica to play the One Love Peace Concert. In attendance was Jamaican President Michael Manley and the leader of the Opposition Edward Seaga. It was Bob who got them on stage and even got them to shake hands. On June 15 he was awarded the Peace Medal of the Third World from the United Nations. For the first time he visited Africa going to Kenya and Ethiopia. On this trip he started to work on the song "Zimbabwe". The band also released their second live album "Babylon by Bus" with was recorded in Paris. The album which followed it was Survival in 1978. Throughout the album the theme of black survival was evident.

The Seventies were now coming to a close, Bob Marley and the Wailers were the most popular band on the road breaking many festival records. In 1980 the band found themselves in Gabon to perform in Africa for the first time. Here Bob Marley discovered that there manager had defrauded the band, Bob gave him a beating and fired him. The Zimbabwean government invited the whole band to perform at the countries Independence Ceremony in April. Bob later said of the invitation to be the biggest honour of his life.

After the amazing honour and experience Bob Marley continue to record, "Uprising" was released in 1980. Everything was looking bright, the band was planning an American tour with Stevie Wonder for that winter. Bob's health was deteriorating, but he still got clearance from a doctor to go on the road. The tour started with Boston, followed by New York. During the New York show Bob's looked very sick and he almost fainted. The next morning on Sept. 21 while jogging through Central, Bob collapsed and was brought to the hospital. There a brain tumour was discovered and doctors gave him a month to live. Rita Marley wanted the tour cancelled but Bob wanted to continue on. He played an unforgettable show in Pittsburgh but was too ill to continue so the tour was finally cancelled.

It would be the last show he ever performed. Treatment prolonged his life somewhat but the inevitable was soon to happening. Bob was transported to a Miami hospital where he was baptized Berhane Selassie in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church on November 4. In a final attempt to save his life he underwent a controversial treatment in Germany. While in Germany he celebrated his 36th and final birthday. Ultimately the treatment didn't work. Bob wanted to die at home so he was flown back. Unfortunately he didn't finish the trip, he died on May 11, 1981 in a Miami hospital. He was internationally mourned for and thousands showed up at his May 21 funeral to show their respects. In attendance wereboth the Jamaican President and the Leader of the Opposition. Bob Marley now rests in a mausoleum at his birthplace.

After his death he was awarded Jamaica's Order of Merit. The Prophet Gad insisted on becoming the owner of Bob's ring. However, amazingly the ring the disappeared and still has yet to be found. Bob's mother said that the ring was returned to it's place of origin.

Bob Marley knew of his fate. Being a visionary he foresaw this, his words will forever be immortalized in the lyrics in which he wrote.

"One bright morning when my work is over I will fly away home"

Jimi Hendrix

Mountain chopping, island building, sky kissing Jimi Hendrix is one of the few undisputed demigods of rock.

It has been said that more superlatives have been bestowed upon Hendrix than any other rock guitarist, and that's no exaggeration.

Considered to be the most influential guitarist in modern music, Jimi Hendrix perfected the deliberate use of distortion and feedback, using it to complement his natural virtuoso ability. He exuded charisma, raw talent, and creativity to excess - delivering some of the most revolutionary music of the 20th century.

A self-taught left-handed guitarist, Jimi played with a right handed Fender Stratocaster - upside down and re-strung. His use of the Strat's tremelo bar was one of the signature elements of his blues influenced style of rock music. In addition to his songwriting and playing ability, Jimi Hendrix was also a pioneer in using the recording studio as an "instrument".

Born in Seattle, Washington in 1942, Jimi Hendrix did not initially find success in his home country. He left for England in September 1966, invited there by The Animal's bass player Chas Chandler. Chas saw Jimi play at The Wha? in Greenich Village and convinced him to go to London, where the audience might be more receptive to his style.

After just a few weeks, "The Jimi Hendrix Experience" trio was founded with Noel Redding on bass and John "Mitch" Mitchell playing drums. In the months that followed they played a string on club venues and released their first UK single - "Hey Joe". The blistering "Purple Haze" came next, and eventually the debut album - "Are You Experienced?" was released to rapidly growing fanbase.

In 1967 his popularity was rising, and Jimi returned to America to play at the Monterey Pop Festival. He delivered a legendary set that he ended by setting fire to his guitar - one of the defining moments in rock history.

His trip to Britan had given his music a springboard to the United States and in the years that followed, Jimi Hendrix rocketed to become an international success. His untimely demise in 1970 was a sudden and grievous shock to the those who had come to know Jimi Hendrix and his music.

The History of Elvis: 1955

History:

By 1955 Elvis Presley had achieved his dream of being a professional singer, even if he was mostly uncategorizable and already engendering controversy for his wild onstage movements and unbelievable charisma. But the records show that Elvis' path to stardom, while quick, was not without a ton of work on his part -- having found a musical home at Sun and a touring band that understood his mix of country, blues, R&B, and pop, Presley spent almost every single day of the year working it, touring from New Mexico to Cleveland to the Florida Everglades and performing anywhere that would have him.

For someone whose previous stage experience consisted mainly of finishing second place at the Mississippi-Alabama Fair and Dairy Show at the age of ten by singing "Old Shep," he learned quickly; the kid often billed with some combination of the words "hillbilly" and "bop" began 1955 running third or fourth on the bill, sometimes even in his adopted hometown of Memphis, but by March, he was headlining. By May, his shows were literally creating a riot. By June, he'd outgrown his manager. By July, he'd hit the national charts. By October, he'd outgrown his label. And by the end of the year, he was ready for the big time.

Much of this had to do with his constant appearances on the Louisiana Hayride radio show out of Shreveport, LA, but in order to grasp the full extent of the Presley hysteria, you had to have visuals. In 1956, Elvis would meet television. And both would be changed irrevocably.

Recording:

January 6: "Fool, Fool, Fool," "Shake, Rattle And Roll" (Cotton Club, Lubbock, TN)
February 1: "Baby, Let's Play House" (Sun Studios, Memphis, TN)
March 5: "I'm Left, You're Right, She's Gone" (Sun Studios, Memphis, TN)
July 11: "I Forgot To Remember To Forget," "Mystery Train," "Tryin' To Get To You" (Sun Studios, Memphis, TN)
October 30: "When It Rains, It Really Pours" (Sun Studios, Memphis, TN)

Singles:

January 29: "Milkcow Blues Boogie" b/w "You're A Heartbreaker" (SUN 215)
May 14: "Baby Let's Play House" b/w "I'm Left, You're Right, She's Gone" (SUN 217)
August 20: "Mystery Train" b/w "I Forgot To Remember To Forget" (SUN 223)

Gambang Kromong, the beats of Betawi jazz

Ida Indawati Khouw, The Jakarta Post, Jakarta

At weekends, rumah kawin (wedding halls) lining the roads in the Chinese peranakan areas of Tangerang (peranakan being the offspring of marriages between ethnic Chinese and those from other ethnic groups), such as Sewan, Kampung Melayu and Rawa Kucing, are filled with the music of energetic orchestras.

The music can be heard from quite a distance, thanks to the powerful sound systems, even though the halls are usually hidden behind houses or found in an open space covered with coarse grass, far from the main roads.

Only a few people will immediately recognize the sound of gambang kromong, a traditional Betawi music ensemble. The orchestra consists of the gambang (a xylophone-like instrument), kromong (a set of small gongs), tehyan (a Chinese string instrument), flute, a percussion set, gongs and kecrek (a metal string instrument). Western instruments including electric guitar, trumpet, clarinet, saxophone, electric keyboard and Hawaiian guitar are also played.

The singers, mostly female, perform pantun (lyrics written in Betawi dialects) with their shrill voices. They sing lagu sayur, the modern repertoire of gambang kromong.

Welcome to the jazz band of Betawi!

Members of the audience are allowed to dance with cokek dancers, and can also embrace and even kiss them.

Ethnomusicologist Philip Yampolsky said the texture of gambang kromong was similar to that of Javanese and Sundanese gamelan orchestras and also had echoes of the ""small-band jazz"" music popular in America and Europe in the 1920s and 1930s, not to mention the strong influence of Chinese music.

""Most lagu sayur were composed before World War Two. Jazz bands in Batavia (old Jakarta) were very popular on the radio and in recordings at that time,"" he said, adding that the older repertoire, the so-called lagu lama (old songs) in which the lyrics are written in Chinese, was now on the brink of extinction.

Yampolsky considers gambang kromong to be unique, because it reflects the mixture of the various ethnic groups in Batavia.

""It is a reflection of the 400 year-long melting of the Chinese, Sundanese and Batavian cultures,"" said Yampolsky, who conducted research on Betawi music between 1990 and 1999. The results of his research were recorded and released on compact disc.

Yampolsky, who is the program officer for media, the arts and culture at the Ford Foundation, said the gambang kromong first emerged in the 18th century, where it began as an ensemble for Chinese peranakan (from the Fujian area of China) in Batavia.

It is difficult to uncover the music's history as the oldest surviving information is contained in an article written by Phoa Kian Sioe in 1949 in Pantja Warna magazine.

Phoa, who said the ensemble was established in 1743, was unsure of the history himself -- as he put it ""the older generations once heard the story from their ancestors"". During those years, performances of the music were hosted by various Chinese kapitant (a leader of an ethnic group in Batavia).

History records that the ensembles then consisted of a combination of Chinese and Sundanese instruments including gambang. Therefore they were called orkes gambang (gambang orchestra).

""The term gambang kromong was introduced in 1880 after the emergence of new repertoires for the ensembles, using Sundanese instruments like the kromong, a small drum and gong,"" Yampolsky said.

Since then lagu sayur have become more and more popular, pushing aside lagu lama which are no longer considered a proper accompaniment for dancing. Another factor was the anti-Chinese sentiment during the rule of former president Soeharto.

Now, there are only two singers still able to perform the old repertoires. They are Ibu Masnah and Ncim Ating.

As part of its efforts to preserve the culture, starting last July the Ford Foundation began supporting the preservation of lagu lama through a training program led by the two elderly singers.

""Without this program, lagu lama would disappear following the deaths of the singers,"" Yampolsky said.

Gordang Sambilan, the Nine Great Drums of the Mandailing People

The Mandailing people is one of the ethnic group from the Province of North Sumatra. They have been mistaken for Bataks in Indonesia and as 'foreign Malays' in Malaysia. The homeland of the Mandailing are in the district (kapupaten) of Mandailing Natal (MADINA for short), the southernmost part of the North Sumatran province. The province of North Sumatra borders that of West Sumatra.

The Mandailing are a clan-based and an egalitarian society governed by an indigenous institution of governance called Na Mora Na Toras (the nobles and the elders). The Gordang Sambilan (the Nine Great Drums) of the Mandailing people forms a component of this system of governance and social interaction called Dalian na Tolu (the three threshold).

Gordang Sambilan is the cultural heritage of the Mandailing people, and there is nothing like it among the other ethnic groups in Malaysia as well as Indonesia. The sacred ceremonial music of the Gordang Sambilan has invincible powers by which the Mandailings call upon the ancestors to give assistance through a shaman called Sibaso.

In the past, Gordang Sambilan ensembles are found in each of the village republics of the Mandailing homeland. The sacred musical instruments were kept in the Sopo Godang, where the council meetings of the Na Mora Na Toras (the nobles and the elders) convened, or place in a special structure called Sopo Gordang (the drum's house) near the Bagas Godang (the Raja's/nobleman's dwelling). The Gordang Sambilan is only used for customary rites as well as to celebrate the Eidul Fitri, the end of the fasting month of Ramadhan.

The instrument of Gordang Sambilan comprised nine drums graded in size from large to small. The largest being about 1.8 meters long, 0.52 meters wide at the top end and 0.50 meters wide at the bottom end. The resonator is made of a whole tree trunk and covered with cow hide and tied with rattan. A stick is used to beat the drums. Each drum in the ensemble has its own name, but the names are not standardised throughout Mandailing. In keeping with the Mandailing tradition of 'democracy', each village republic has the freedom to name their drums differently.

The Gordang Sambilan ensemble is complemented by two big agung (gongs). The biggest gong is called ogung boru-boru (the female gong) and the smaller bong is called agung jantan (the male gong). Other smaller sets of gong also accompany the ensemble, one called doal dan three much smaller gongs called lemsapong or mong-mongan. Gordang Sambilan is also accompanied by a bamboo flute called sarune or saleot, and a pair of small symbols called tali sasayat.

During the period of animism, the Gordang Sambilan was employed to evoke the spirits of the Mandailing ancestors to come to the rescue of Mandailing society. The ceremony was called paturuan Sibaso (to call upon the spirits to put the Sibaso into trance). The purpose is to summon the ancestors to come to the assistance of the Mandailing people, when afflicted by a plague, for example. Gordang Sambilan was also employed to bring down the rain during drought and to stop the rain when bad weather caused hardship to people.

When the Gordang Sambilan is used in a wedding ceremony, it is called Orja Godang Markaroan Boru and in a burial ceremony, it is called Orja Mambulungi. Permission has to be obtained from the Na Mora Na Toras and from the Raja (the nobleman) as both these ceremonies are viewed as personal and private affairs. The petition is submitted before the audience of the Na Mora Na Toras, the Raja and the applicant. As a requirement, the applicant must also offer a male adult buffalo for slaughter. If these requirements are not met, the performance of the Gordang Sambilan will not be allowed.

For the burial ceremony (Orja Manbulungi), only two of the nine drums are used, and these drums are called Jangat. But in the context of the ceremony itself the drums are called Bombat.

The performance of the Gordang Sambilan in customary rites is accompanied by adat (customary) paraphernalia including flags called Tonggol, ceremonial umbrella called Payung Raranagan and an assortment of arms from swords to spears called Podang and Sijabut Tombak respectively.

Gordang Sambilan is also played to accompany the dance called Sarama. The dancer sometimes gets into a trance because the spirits of the ancestors enters the dancer. Similarly with the players of the Gordang Sambilan.

Of late, apart from using the Gordang Sambilan as a sacred musical instrument, the Mandailing people have started performing it as a traditional art form that is now popular in Indonesia. The Mandailing migrants to Malaysia have started playing Gordang Sambilan in social events. Gordang Sambilan was introduced into Europe and America when two Indonesian contingents promoting 'Indonesian' traditional art form performed the Gordang Sambilan in the two continents.

Seen as a traditional art form, Gordang Sambilan is now used outside the context of Mandailing adat (customs), and is employed to received dignitaries, celebrate national events, social gatherings and welcome Edul Fitri, marking the end of the fasting month of Ramadhan.

Texts by Drs. Z. Pangaduan Lubis
Translation by Abdur-Razzaq Lubis
Edited by Khoo Salma Nasution

A Brief History of Nommensen

Dr. Ludwig Ingwer Nommensen was born in Nordstrand Island on , Schleswig-Holstein State, between Denmark and Germany on February 6, 1834. Supported by Rcheinische Mission Gesellschaft (RMG), in1861Nommensen sailed for Sumatra. In 1864 he was able to settle among the Toba Bataks in the valley of Silindung, Northern Sumatra. It was the beginning of a singular Christian career of outstanding self-denial and unfailing dedication. He preached the Gospel in word and deed among the Batak people of a territory still independent of Dutch colonial administration. Though in the beginning their behavior seemed strange to him in many ways, he respected their human dignity and recognized their inalienable right to their own convictions. He mastered t heir language and built bridges of trust.

Nommensen owed his outlook and convictions not only to his seminary training but also to the Lutheran revival movement in Schleswig-Holstein. Throughout his life he interpreted Christianity as "New Life," as taught by F. A. G. Tholuck (1799-1872) and A. Neander (1789-1850). Tholuck and Neander's theological and philosophical positions pervaded the teaching Nommensen received during his seminary years. In Sumatra he and his fellow missionaries explicated the New Life in every aspect of indigenous experience: daily life and order, custom, law, time, age, and rule. These key words represented the kerygmatic paradigm for their evangelistic outreach. Nommensen committed himself to see that New Life penetrated Batak life and culture.

The anthropocentric orientation of his theology led him to evangelize dialogically. He introduced instructions for baptism by posing questions about bliss, eternal life, and obedience to the triune God, rather than by starting with the creation story in Genesis and the people of Israel. His idea of an organically growing Christian life and ethos rested on unshakable trust in Christ. He led his dialogue partners to grasp the meaning of salvation, emphasizing the second coming of Christ. He communicated his theology and method to his fellow missionaries, instructing them for their communication with the Batak people: "Bear them on a priestly heart and preach the Word to them in season and out of season. Everyone who comes to you, you should look upon as being sent by the Lord, and devote as much time to him as is needed to show him the way of life." Nommensen emphasized that one must master the Batak language in order to "live and demonstrate one's life to the heathen and study their way of thinking."

Nommensen integrated the revival tradition of his early years in Germany into his daily theology. Central to his belief was the sovereignty of God, who has revealed himself in his living Word, Jesus Christ, "Lord and Savior of the world." By faith in the living Lord, Christians share in Christ's victory over sin, death, and Satan. Nommensen emphasized the Satan figure in the baptismal instructions and employed it in his teaching and preaching, thereby showing sensitivity to the supernatural sphere of life. His faith in the power of the incarnation (Phil. 2:5-11) led him to his view of human beings, who are enabled with the love of Christ to serve their fellow men and women. He taught the missionaries, "After one has come to understand the people and to be understood by them, one has to begin with the preaching of the Gospel in having a twofold work, namely to pull down the bulwark of Satan and to build up the house of truth." His conception of the church reflected his anthropological emphasis and res ulted in planting a truly "people's church" among the Batak. By example he demonstrated human solidarity in Christ. He realized this way of life by commissioning local elders and chiefs to "gossip the Gospel" in the village. This ministry of the laity reflected Nommensen's emphasis on the congregation as the gathered people of God under the Word of God. He practiced a contextual ecclesiology by using the customary law and structural elements of the people for the formation of a "people's church," as can be seen in the church constitutions of 1866 and 1881. The strong growth and coherence of the church, especially after the resistance of the traditionalists faded, tended to be accompanied by an uncritical allegiance to the customary law; sometimes it became almost the pivot of Christian living. Nevertheless, the indigenization of Batak Christianity has been regarded as "the secret of the growth and the prosperity of the Christian religion in the Batak land."

Nominensen made a decisive effort to gather the church along "three-self" principles. This approach was meant to help the church survive in case of persecution or the expulsion of European personnel. At the same time, Nommensen, in his paternalism and conservative social ethics, welcomed the colonial administration as the best way for development and progress. In 1904 he even proposed to the Dutch administration how to take possession of hitherto independent Batak territory, and how to divide the districts in the best interest of tribal boundaries.

Because of the growing success of the Batak Mission, Nommensen gained recognition and distinction in Europe. In 1893 he was made knight of the Royal Dutch Order of Orange Nassau; in 1904 the theological faculty of the University of Bonn conferred on him the honorary degree of doctor of theology. October 1911 saw two meaningful fiftieth anniversaries: the beginning of the Batak Mission (October 7, 1861) and Nommensen's ordination to the ministry (October 13, 1861). Moreover, in 1911 he was honored by the queen of Holland who conferred on him the Officer's Cross of the Order of Orange Nassau.

But Nommensen's legacy lies preeminently in Sumatra and in the Christian church among the Batak. By 1918, the year of his death, the Batak church was firmly established, with 34 pastors, 788 teacher-preachers, and 180,000 members. In addition, sixty European men and women of the Rhenish Mission served as coworkers with the Batak leadership. By virtue of their established Christian community, the Batak were ready to enter a new age. Nommensen translated Luther's Small Catechism, the New Testament in 1878, and several other works into Batak language and wrote hymns and a church order for the Batak church. By 1894 the entire Bible had been translated. Education was stressed, and many elementary schools were established in the villages. Batak mission society extended the mission's works among the people. Nommensen's impact therefore is not so much evident in a collection of writings, or with missionaries who followed his missionary methods; rather it is reflected in an indigenous Christian community that knows what it owes to his love and vision. In the early part of the twentieth century, the Batak church was the largest Protestant church in Southeast Asia. Several Batak Churches (HKBP) have also been built in USA, Europe, Australia, and several countries in Asia.

In 1954, long after the German mission society had left the island, Nommensen was remembered in the name of a new university, Nommensen University. And on the 150th anniversary of his birth, Nommensen was celebrated in a symposium about the meaning and ongoing relevance of his work for the churches in western Indonesia. This important event was sponsored in 1984 by the theological seminary of the Batak Church (HKBP).

Nommensen died on May 23, 1916. He was buried beside the graves of his wife, daughter, and other missionaries in Sigumpar Village, Toba Samosir Regency. He'd been living there since 1891 till the end of his life. Later on June 29, 1996, Pasombar Foundation restored his cemetry and bulild The Nommensen Memorial. The memorial monument is called Salib Kasih (Love's Cross) and used as an open church.

Although Nommensen has passed away, but his works live forever. He has showed what the true meaning of Love is through his faith and dedication to the Lord manifested in his works among the Batak people.

"To live or to die,
alow me to stay among this people for the expansion of your Gospel and your Kingdom. Amen!"

Music of Thailand - History

Thailand retains cultural connections with the two great centers of Asian civilizations, India and China. Though Thailand was never colonized by Western powers, pop music and other forms of European and American music have become extremely influential. The two most popular styles of modern Thai music are mor lam and luk thung, which have important influences from Laos and other neighboring nations.

Aside from the Thai, minorities of Laotians, Lawa, Hmong, Akha, Mien, Lisu, Karen and Lahu peoples have retained traditional musical forms.

A distinctive Thai culture did not exist until 1257, when the kingdom of Sukhothai was created. Music was an important part of life during this period, and what is now known as Thai classical music arose during the Ayuthaya period. Music flourished for the next few centuries, in spite of occasional oppression from monarchs like Rama I.

Pleng luk thung
Pleng luk thung, or Thai country music, was invented in the early 1950s to reflect daily trials and tribulations of rural Thais. Ponsri Woranut and Suraphon Sombatjalern were the genre's first big stars, and helped incorporate influences from Latin America, Japan, Indonesia, Malaysia and, especially, American film soundtracks and country music (including yodelling). Many of the most popular pleng luk thung stars have come from the central city of Suphanburi, including future megastar Pompuang Duanjan, who adapted pleng luk thung to 1980s string and pop music by making a dance-ready form called electronic luk thung. When Pompuang died in 1992, many observers felt that luk thung would die with her, but it persisted and, with the advent of the first all luk thung radio station in 1997, soon saw a major revival.

Mor lam
There is a large minority of Laotians in Isan, the Northeastern region of Thailand, and they are known for mor lam music. Mor lam has long had an affinity with luk thung, and many of the genre's biggest stars, like Chalermphol Malaikham and Jintara Poonlarp, are heavily influenced by luk thung. Mor lam is a distinctively Laotian genre, and can be characterized by rapid-fire, rhythmic vocals and a funk feel to the percussion. Mor lam is played by a mor khaen, who plays the khaen, and a lead singer also called a mor lam.

There are about fifteen regional variations of mor lam, and there are modern versions as well. Mor lam sing is the best-known of these, nad has become popular all over Isan, as well as in Laos. Some conservative Laotians have criticized this as the commercialization of traditional cultures.

Kantrum
The people of Isan are also known for kantrum, which is much less famous for mor lam. Kantrum is played by Cambodians living near the border with Cambodia. It is a swift and very traditional dance music. In its purest form, cho-kantrum, singers, percussion and fiddles dominate the sound. A more modern form using electric instrumentation arose in the mid-1980s. Later in the decade, Darkie became the genre's biggest star, and he crossed into mainstream markets in the later 1990s.

Pop and rock
By the 1930s, however, Western classical music, showtunes, jazz and tango were popular. Soon, jazz grew to dominate Thai popular music, and Khru Eua Sunthornsanan soon set up the first Thai jazz band. The music he soon helped to invent along with influential band Suntharaporn was called pleng Thai sakorn, which incorporated Thai melodies with Western classical music. This music continued to evolve into luk grung, a romantic music that was popular with the upper-class.

By the 1960s, Western rock was popular and Thai artists began imitating bands like Cliff Richard & the Shadows; this music was called wong shadow, and it soon evolved into a form of Thai pop called string. The following decade saw Rewat Buddhinan beginning to use the Thai language in rock music, and by the 1980s, this had evolved into what was called string. The 70s also saw the rise of protest songs called pleng phua cheewit.

The earliest pleng phua cheewit (songs for life) band was called Caravan, and they soon emerged at the forefront of a movement for democracy. In 1976, police and rightwing activists attacked students at Thammasat University; Caravan, along with other bands and activists, fled for the rural hills. There, Caravan continued playing music for local farmers, and composed what is now their most famous song, "Khon Gap Kwaii".

In the 1980s, pleng phua cheewit re-entered the mainsteam with a grant of amnesty to dissidents. Bands like Carabao became best-sellers and incorporated sternly nationalistic elements in their lyrics. By the 1990s, pleng phua cheewit had fallen from the top of the Thai charts, though artists like Pongsit Kamphee continued to command a large audience.

String pop took over mainstream listeners in Thailand in the 90s, and bubblegum pop stars like Tata Young and Asanee & Wasan became best-sellers. Simultaneously, Britpop influenced alternative rock artists like Modern Dog became popular.

Classical music
The earliest Thai ensembles were called piphat, and they included woodwind and percussion instruments, originally in order to accompany the theater. Another ensemble type, khruang sai, added stringed instruments, while mahori further added melodic percussion instruments.

The Thai scale includes seven equal notes, instead of a mixture of tones and semitones. Instruments improvise around the central melody.

References
Clewley, John. "Songs for Living". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific, pp 241-253. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 1-85828-636-0

Traditional Indonesian MusicTraditional Indonesian Music

Gamelan orchestra
Gamelan music is the most popular and important kind in Indonesia. Gamelan orchestras accompany all dances and dramas. Gamel means 'to hammer', and most of the instruments of a gamelan orchestra are struck with wooden mallets, padded sticks or hammers.The conductor of a gamelan orchestra is a drummer who is part of the orchestra.

Instruments of a gamelan orchestra
A complete orchestra could have about 40 or more different instruments. There would be instruments that are struck to produce sound, such as kettledrums, xylophones, and gongs of various sizes. There would be a wind instrument, a bamboo flute called a suling, and string instruments such as a zither or lute. There would be instruments whose sounds are produced by vibration, such as drums, bells, cymbals and gongs.

There are also two sets of instruments that are tonal: the slendro tuned to five tones and the pelog, tuned to seven tones. The slendro is used to suggest festivity or cheerfulness, and is believed to have developed in Java in the eighth century. The pelog is used to express sadness, and is also very ancient in its origins. These two cannot be played together, but are used according to the mood of the piece being played.

Gamelan music
Gamelan music is complicated. It is an ancient form of music and has been handed down for many generations, never written down, but learned by being played. Gamelan is an essential part of Indonesian life. It is slightly different from island to island.

Angklung music
Another popular form of orchestral music is the angklung, which is played on instruments made entirely of bamboo of different lengths. Each instrument is made up of two bamboo tubes, each of a different note. The instruments are shaken to produce sound.

You can read more about gamelan and see pictures of instruments at the following sites

http://www.balibeyond.com/gamelan.htmlgamelan.html

http://www.balibeyond.com/gamelaninstruments.html

THE NORTH INDIAN SYSTEM OF MUSIC

(HINDUSTANI SANGEET)

by David Courtney

The north Indian system of music is known as Hindustani Sangeet or sometimes Hindusthani Sangit. It covers an area that extends roughly from Bangladesh through northern and central India into Pakistan and as far as Afghanistan.

The usual interpretation states that theHindustani system may be thought of as a mixture of traditional Hindu musical concepts and Persian performance practice. The advent of Islamic rule over northern India caused the musicians to seek patronage in the courts of the new rulers. These rulers, often of foreign extraction, had strong cultural and religious sentiments focused outside of India; yet they lived in, and administered kingdoms which retained their traditional Hindu culture. Several centuries of this arrangement caused the Hindu music to absorb musical influences from the Islamic world, primarily greater Persia.

Although this is the usual view, there are reasons to think that this is an over-simplification. This view gives excessive weight to the religious differences between the Hindus of South Asia and the Muslims of the greater Persian empire (present day Iran, Afghanistan, and portions of the former Soviet Union.) At the same time it ignores long standing linguistic, economic, and cultural ties which existed between the areas of present day northern Indian and the greater Persian world.

There are a number of musical instruments that we associate with Hindustani sangeet. The most famous is the sitar and tabla. Other less well known instruments are the sarod, sarangi and a host of others.

Some of the major vocal forms associated with Hindustani Sangeet are the kheyal, gazal, and thumri. Other styles which are also important are the dhrupad, dhammar, and tarana. This is just a small sampling for there are many other vocal styles that we will have to discuss elsewhere.

NORTH INDIAN MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

• Sitar
• Sarod
• Surbahar
• Vichitra Vina
• Tanpura
• Santur
• Rabab
• Bansuri
• Shehnai
• Harmonium
• Manjira
• Ghungharu
• Sarangi
• Esraj
• Dilruba
• Mayuri
• Tabla
• Tabla Tarang
• Pakhawaj

NORTH INDIAN VOCAL STYLES

• Kheyal
• Bhajan
• Tarana
• Dhrupad
• Dhammar
• Dadra
• Gazal
• Geet
• Thumri
• qawwali
• Kirtan or Dhun
• Shabad
• Lakshangeet
• Film Songs
• Folk Music
• Swarmalika

NORTH INDIAN INSTRUMENTAL STYLES

• Alap
• Jor
• Gat
• Jhala
• Dhun

A brief summary of African Popular music

During the 1980s, the West rediscovered the folk music of Africa. Afro-rock started with commercial groups based in the west, such as Osibisa.

The cross-pollination took place in both directions: western popular music adopted elements of African music, while African music adopted elements (particularly the studio techniques) of western music.

During the 1980s, the styles and genres of the various African countries, such as South Africa's "mbaqanga", Zimbabwe's "jit", Zaire's "soukous", Nigeria's "juju" and Ghana's "highlife", had a chance to develop and proliferate around the world.

Congo

See
African music of the 1950s
African music of the 1970s
Afro-pop of the 1980s

During the 1950s, when they experienced rapid urbanization and a relatively booming economy, the two French-speaking colonies of the Congo area (capitals in Brazzaville and Kinshasa) witnessed the birth of an African version of the Cuban rumba played by small American-style orchestras (called "kasongo", "kirikiri" or "soukous") with a touch of jazz and of local attitudes: Joseph "Grand Kalle" Kabasselleh's African Jazz (that counted on vocalist Tabu Ley, guitarist "Docteur" Nico Kasanda, saxophonist Manu Dibango), Jean-Serge Essous' O.K.Jazz (featuring the young Franco), Orchestre Bella Bella, etc. Each orchestra became famous for one or more "dances" that they invented. So soukous (as Ley dubbed it in 1966) is actually a history of dances, rather than one monolithic genre (Ley's definition originally applied only to a frenzied version of rumba). A guitarist named Jimmy Elenga introduced "animation": instructions yelled to the crowd in order to direct their dances. Animation eventually became part of the dance, delivering both the identity of the dance, the (ethnic) identity of the band and a (more or less subtle) sociopolitical message. As dictators seized power in both Congos, musicians emigrated to other African countries, to Europe and to the USA, thus spreading soukous around the world, while in Zaire (Congo Kinshasa) soukous bands were used for Maoist-style propaganda purposes ("l'animation politique").

A key figure was "Franco" (Francois Luambo Makiadi), the guitarist who in 1958 evolved the O.K.Jazz into the 20-member T.P.O.K.Jazz (including saxohpnist 'Verkys' Kiamanguana Mateta) and was largely responsible for the relaxed, sensual, languid version of soukous that became predominant, before the 1967 arrival of guitarist Mose Fan Fan led to a more lively sound. His collaboration with Tabu Ley, Omana Wapi (1976), contained only four lengthy dances. The other star of the TP OK Jazz band, hired by Franco in 1984, was vocalist and composer Jean "Madilu System" Bialu.

Tabu Pascal (aka Tabu Ley Rochereau) formed African Fiesta in 1963 (initially with Dr Nico, who co-wrote the classic Afrika Mokili Mobimba) and then renamed it Afrisa in 1970, with vocalist Sam Mangwana (and later heavenly soprano M'bilia Bel) and guitarist Huit-Kilos Bimwela Nseka. From the beginning, Ley played the Latin rhythms on the drums of rock music, thus merging (at least ideally) rumba and rock. His Fiesta also turned the soukous concert into a happening that was reminiscent of the sexy shows of Parisian cabarets.

The generation of the 1970s included the orchestras of Papa Wemba, whose Viva La Musica was formed in 1977 (a name inspired by Puertorican star Ray Barreto but the music is equally inspired by Otis Redding's sweet soul) and is best represented in L'Esclave (1987), Kanda Bongo Man, with Amour Fou (1984), Dr Nico, Zaiko Langa Langa, plus Orchestra Veve, founded by Franco's disciple 'Verkys' Kiamanguana Mateta, with Lukani (1975), Orchestre Virunga.

Congolese keyboardist and musicologist Ray Lema Ansi Nzinga relocated to France, where he achieved the rumba, rock, funk and reggae fusion of Kinshasa- Washington DC- Paris (1983). His adult phase was instead devoted to merging African rhythm and western classical harmony, particularly on introspective albums of piano music such as Tout Partout (1994).

On the contrary, Brazzaville's singer-songwriter Pamelo Mounka, an alumnus of Tabu Ley's Afrisa, remained faithful to the traditional Congo sound on L'Argent Appelle l'Argent (1981).

Albums by westernized singers from Congo in the 1980s also included Kanda Bongo's Amour Fou (1984) and Souzy Kasseya's Le Retour de l'As (1984).

Raised in Europe, fluent in the musical traditions of the Middle East and of African-Americans, Congolose vocalist Marie Daulne founded Zap Mama (1), an all-female a-cappella group, to sing tunes inspired by the music of the world, such as on Adventures in Afropea I (1993).

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Ghana

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Ghana, the first African country to win independence from a European colonizer (in 1957) and the economic miracle of Africa at the end of the century, was the birthplace of highlife music. Originally the name given by blacks to the music of the white social elite, it evolved from the fusion of rural "palm-wine" music for guitar, percussion and concertina, church music, Latin ballroom music, military music and African tribal music. The black bands that used to play at parties of white people started playing also for black people, and their sound became more and more Africanized. The guitar-based fusion was mature in the 1930s, when it was interpreted for the masses by Jacob Sam (his Yaa Amponsah dates from 1928), heavily influenced by the Cuban orchestras. In the 1950s, especially after independence, highlife bandleaders Emmanuel Tettah Mensah (leader since 1948 of the twelve-piece orchestra Tempos, the charismatic archetype of the highlife dance band), King Bruce, Jerry Hansen, Stan Plange, E.K. Nyame, leader of the most popular guitar-band, drummer Guy Warren, Nigerian trumpeter Victor Olaiya, Nigerian guitarist Bobby Benson, were influenced by American swing bands. The Tempos exported highlife to Nigeria in 1951, and Nigeria soon became to rival Ghana for highlife supremacy.

In the 1960s American soul and rock music prevailed, and in 1971 the "Soul to Soul" festival helped bridge the worlds of American black popular music and of highlife, thus returning the supremacy to guitar-based bands: Nana Kwame Ampadu's African Brothers International Band, that cut Ebi Tie Ye (1967), Okukuseku, Noble Kings, Ashanti Brothers, Nana Ampadu, City Boys, Hi-Life International. In Nigeria, the most influential highlife bands included: Rex Lawson's Mayors Dance Band, Celestine Ukwu's Philosophers National, Osita Osadere's Soundmakers International, Oriental Brothers International Band, Orlando Owoh's Omimah Band, Oliver Akanite de Coque's Expo '76 Ogene Super Sounds.

The fad of Afro-rock started with a group from Ghana based in London, Osibisa, formed by Teddy Osei, that struck gold with Music for Gong Gong (1970) and Sunshine Day (1976). Highlife was then quickly corrupted by rock, reggae and hip-hop. Notable albums of the 1970s included Party Time With CeeKay (1973) by Charles Kofi Mann and The Kusum Beat (1976) by Alfred Benjamin Crentsil's Sweet Talks. In Nigeria, Nico Mbarga's Sweet Mother (1976) was a turning point in the fusion of highlife and makossa.

In the 1980s Ghanian acts George Darko and the Lumba Brothers (Charles "Daddy Lumba" Fosu and Nana "Lover Boy" Acheampong) who had emigrated to Germany launched a brief local fad, "burgher highlife".

Ghana's percussionist Kwaku Kwaakye Obeng (1) delivered the imposing intricate and hypnotic polyrhythmic maelstroms of Awakening (1998).

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Nigeria

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Nigeria, the most populous country of the African continent, was always at the vanguard of world-music.

Nigerian hand drumming virtuoso Babatunde Olatunji (1) shocked the USA with Drums of Passion (1959), a collection of traditional Nigerian music for percussion and chanting. (He would continue to pursue his aesthetic of drumming-induced trance with the The Invocation of 1988 and the 21-minute Cosmic Rhythm Vibrations of 1993).

Nigerian saxophonist, pianist and vocalist Fela Anikulapo Kuti (4) coined a new style of music (Afro-beat) by combining James Brown's funk music, highlife and jazz. In 1966 he joined the Highlife Jazz Band. In 1968, after visiting the USA and being influenced by the "black power" movement, he also added sociopolitical lyrics. Persecuted by the Nigerian government, he became the voice of the oppressed. At his best, Kuti concocts lengthy improvised jams of bebop saxophone lines, Frank Zappa-esque horn fanfares, call-and-response vocals, and wild polyrhythms led by Tony Allen's spectacular drumming. His recordings include: London Scene (1970), still very derivative of James Brown, Gentleman (1973), one of his most popular albums, Zombie (1977), Teacher Don't Teach Me Nonsense (1987), Overtake Don Overtake Overtake (1990).

Nigeria (particularly the Yoruba region) is also the homeland of juju music, the African equivalent of American folk-rock: tribal polyrhythm wed to electric guitars. In the 1920s juju music was born (like the blues) as a music of the rural poor, but in 1958 Isaiah Kehinde Dairo began to transform it into an urban phenomenon, and in 1960 he introduced accordion into the ensemble.

Ebenezer Obey (1) further modernized juju by drawing on highlife, and his lengthy jams (underpinning a spiritual longing) turned it into an exercise in trance, for example on Mo Tun Gbe De (1973).

On the surface, the intricate dance suites of Nigerian juju vocalist and guitarist "King" Sunny Ade` (1) simply wed African percussion, call-and-response singing and western-style arrangements of guitars and synthesizers. But, often, the roles of guitarists and percussionists were swapped, as the latter drove the melody and the former drove the rhythm. The production emphasized the techniques of Jamaican dub, and sonic details often harked back to other ethnic traditions, such as the twang of country music. Ade`'s stylistic mixture reached maturity on Juju Music (1982).

Later, juju fused with other styles (both African and western) in the work of Dele Abiodun, who came of age with Beginning Of A New Era (1981), and Segun Adewale's Superstars International, that reached their best synthesis on Endurance (1982).

The Yoruba region's "fuji" music is closely related to Islam, although its origins are purely African. It is performed by ensembles of vocalists and percussionists. During the 1970s, the style was popularized by Sikiru "Barrister" Ayinde, Ayinya Kollington and child prodigy Salawa Abeni.

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South Africa

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South Africa had a melting pot of its own. In the black urban centers where different tribes met, and met with foreign slaves, a dance style called "marabi" evolved. It was originally a humble form of music, but it became similar to the jazz music played by swing bands in the USA when it was adopted by the relatively wealthy and free blacks of Sophiatown, a suburb that had become a sort of Johannesburg's Harlem. In 1955 it was destroyed by the white racist government, an event that led to the radicalization of South African jazz music.

The most influential phenomenon in South-African music was the evolution of Zulu township music, or mbaqanga (originally the name of a soup of the 1950s), a lilting style that relies on driving rhythm. Early South-African songs include Solomon Linda's Mbube (1939), the base for The Lion Sleeps Tonight.

Much of South-African music of the 1950s was born at the crossroads of jazz and folk music. In fact, an important moment for the emancipation of the local scene was Todd Matshikiza's musical King-Kong (1959), that exported a fusion of classical, jazz and African idioms, and that featured both trumpeter Hugh Masekela and vocalist Miriam Makeba.

Miriam Makeba, an activist in the civil-rights movement of the USA, recorded in a pop-jazz style, often accompanied by her husband Hugh Masekela.

Trumpet player Hugh Masekela (1) fused the South-African tradition of work and church songs (the South-African equivalent of the American blues and gospel) and Zulu mbaqanga rhythms with the structure of jazz and pop-jazz music, on albums such as The Lasting Impression (1965).

Possibly the greatest of the South-African groaners (sarcastic singers in a croaking/growling/roaring register), Simon "Mahlathini" Nkabinde (1) created an exuberant brand of mbaqanga music on albums such as Putting on the Light (1975), backed by female singers the Mahotella Queens (heirs to the "smodern" tradition, which was a sort of Tamla soul adapted to Zulu's polyphonic choirs) and boasting the rock instrumental arrangements of producer, saxophonist and pennywhistle player West Nkosi (leader of the Makgona Tsohle Band with Marks Mankwane on guitar).

Joseph Shabalala's Ladysmith Black Mambazo is a vocal group that specializes in the a-cappella harmonies called "mbube" (and its more refined version "isicathamiya") that originated in the golden mines of South Africa. The early albums, such as Ukusindiswa and Umthombo Wamanzi (1982), focused on call-and-response structures.

Other significant South-African acts include the mbaqanga combo Soul Brothers, popular in the second half of the 1970s, and the instrumental combo Boyoyo Boys (whose melodies are played by saxophones or pennywhistles).

White singer-songwriter Johnny Clegg collaborated with South African black musician Sipho Mchunu to form Juluka, whose Scatterlings (1983) was South Africa's version of folk-rock, and then formed Savuka to craft the more cosmopolitan mix of Third World Child (1987).

Ermelo "Lucky" Dube, who had already become a successful singer-songwriter with Lengane Ngeyetha (1982) and Kukuwe (1984), became the first reggae star of South Africa with Rastas Never Die (1985), bringing down the house with his third reggae album, Slave (1987).

Madagascar's Tarika (1) is led by female vocalist Hanitra Rasoanaivo who is on a musicologist as well as sociopolitical mission to rediscover the roots of her land on albums such as the bleak (but no less rhythmically upbeat) concept Son Egal (1997).

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Rai

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At the turn of the century, the port of Oran, or, better, its decadent milieu of sailors, prostitutes and artists, experienced a boom in music that could rival New Orleans or Kansas City. The "cheikhs" and "cheikhas" (young male and young female performers) created a new style that fused Berber, Bedouin and Spanish elements. Conservative clerics disapproved, but Algeria was a colony of France. In the 1930s that music was called wahrani and had already embraced political overtones. This time it was the colonial oppressors who disapproved. Cheikha Rimitti was the first star, the best known of the "shaabi musicians" who became the soundtrack of Algeria's independence war.

In the 1960s, trumpet player Bellamou Messaoud coined a westernized form of rai, replete with elements of flamenco, blues, rock, jazz and funk, arranged with guitars, saxophone and accordion. He replaced wahrani's qasbah flute with the trumpet. He was appropriately nicknamed Le Pere du Rai (1989).

In 1967 the Algerian government banned rai (as well as alcohol). This sent the music underground, and producer Rachid Baba Ahmed became its reference point, helping the chebs and chebas, who took the place of the "cheikhs" and "cheikhas", record cassettes that spread around the country and Europe despite the official ban.

Cheba Fadela was the first pop-rai queen, enjoying unsurpassed popularity with hits such as Ana Ma H'Lali Ennoun (1979) and N'Sel Fik (1983), which are fully westernized (even synthesizers).

A typical French-style maudit and bohemien artist, Cheb Khaled (1) took the sound of the Algerian revolution and transposed it into the punk era. Rai became the voice of the poor and the oppressed, and, in the years of the Civil War, the voice of the anti-fundamentalist westernized youth, as documented by the slick synthesized production of Kutche (1989).

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Mali

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1980s
1990s

Mali is the land of the griots (the French word for the native word "jeli"), the bards of the Sahara who accompany themselves with the kora harp, the balafon xylophone and the ngoni lute, descendants of a century-old tradition. Mali, or, better, the swamps of the Niger river, might also be the homeland of the blues. Traditionally musicians come only from some families: the job of musician is hereditary.

The first major recording of the acoustic music of the "Manding" region (roughly Mali to Guinea), characterized by sweet singalong melodies, was Yasimika (1983), conceived by Guinean kora player and vocalist Jali Musa Jawara, accompanied by balafon and guitar.

The first national voice of Mali was Boubacar Traore (1), a vocalist and guitarist who played an African version of the blues. He didn't record his music until Mariama (1990).

Mali's vocalist Salif Keita (1) was (1969) a co-founder with Tidiane Kone' of the Super Rail Band and (1972) a member of horn-band Les Ambassadeurs, that cut the epic Mandjou (1979). His first solo album, the dramatic Soro (1987), incorporated rock arrangements and took advantage of western studio techniques, while remaining faithful to his African roots.

Kasse` Mady Diabate, the voice of the National Badema orchestra, who moved to Europe in 1983, followed in Keita's footsteps with Fode (1988) but then returned to his roots with Kela Tradition (1990).

Mali's virtuoso of the kora harp Toumani Diabate (1), son of the Sidiki Diabate who recorded the first album ever of kora music, Ancient Strings (1970), introduced elements of minimalism, psychedelia and blues into his solo kora album Kaira (1987).

With the album Ali Farka Toure (1988), Mali's blues guitarist Ali Farka Toure (1) carved a niche in the territory of Taj Mahal and Ry Cooder, but then returned to his roots with the elegant Savane (2006).

Guinean kora player Mory Kante, who succeeded Salif Ke‹ta in the Rail Band in 1973, adapted Mandinka music to the dancefloor and produced Yeke Yeke (1987), the first ever African single to sell over one million copies.

Maham Konate's percussion ensemble Farafina, from Burkina Faso, delved into African polyrhythms on Bolomakote (1988).

Mali remained the leading scene of Africa in the 1990s.

Malian guitarist Djelimady (or Jalimadi) Tounkara of the Super Rail Band has developed a style that evokes the sound of the kora harp, the balafon xylophone and and the ngoni lute.

Habib Koite' (1), who played guitar in the band Bamada (Cigarette A Bana) since 1990, fused griot philosophy, the trancey folk music of the desert (he plays the guitar like a ngoni lute) and the blues jamming of the forest on Muso Ko (1995).

Issa Bagayogo updated the traditions of Mali to the age of electronic dance music (house, techno, hip-hop, dub) on Sya (1998) and Timbuktu (2002).

Powerful vocalist Kandia Kouyate, a sort of Aretha Franklin of Mali, was first immortalized in the 1980s on Kandia Kouyate & the Ensemble Instrumental. On Kita Kan (1999) she alternates between the western orchestra, the rock combo and the African folk ensemble, whereas Biriko (2002) is a traditional, acoustic effort.

Mali's female singer-songwriter Oumou Sangare (1) single-handedly revolutionized African music with Ko Sira (1993), devoted to feminist issues from the perspective of a young African woman, sung in a majestic register, and accompanied by danceable music for violin, lute and percussion.

Lobi Traore' (1) bridged distant ages on Bambara blues (1991) and Bamako (1994) by harking back to the original feeling of the blues while adopting the burning guitar riffs of hard-rock and underpinning them with frantic cerimonial percussion.

Rokia Traore' (1) expressed her anguish in a gentle tone on Wanita (2000) over hypnotic rhythmic patterns based on the kora harp, the ngoni lute and the balafon xylophone, but rather neutral in terms of ethnic origin.

Originally from Mali but formed in an Algerian refugee camp, Tinariwen, a desert-blues band of Tuareg nomads with electric guitars, were the main musicians to emerge from the first "Festival au Desert" that was held in january 2001 at Tin Essako in the Sahara of northeastern Mali. The Radio Tisdas Sessions (2002), Amassakoul/ Traveller (2004) and Aman Iman/ Water is Life (2007) documented the music they had been playing since the mid 1980s.

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Zimbabwe

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Zimbabwe's jit music is a percussive dancefloor style that weds Shona melodies, thumb piano, and guitar-driven rhythm'n'blues, something halfway between Zaire's soukous, Ghana's highlife, and South Africa's mbaqanga.

Zimbabwe-Shona minstrel Thomas Mapfumo (2) specialized in the genre of political songs (chimurenga music) that was in vogue during the civil war. Substituting electric guitar (Jonah Sithole) and drums for the mbira thumb piano and hosho rattlers, Mapfumo created his own personal hybrid of African and western music on albums such as Gwindingwi Rine Shumba (1980), while Chimurenga for Justice (1986) opted for a mellower sounds and introduced a languid fusion of soul, rock and reggae.

The Bhundu Boys popularized jit in the Britain with the effervescent Shabini (1986).

Zimbabwe's guitarist John Chibadura was the virtuoso of jit. His albums Mudzimo Wangu (1985), 5000$ Kuroora (1986), and Sara Ugarike (1987) were among the most popular of the genre. When he went reggae, Chibadura was equally successul with Zuva Refuka Kwangu (1988). He died in 1999.

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Cameroon

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Cameroon saxophonist Manu Dibango (1), who became famous thanks to the proto-disco groove of Soul Makossa (1972), fused African rhythms and melodies with reggae, notably on Gone Clear (1979), and funk, notably on Waka Juju (1982).

Dibango also started a vogue for makossa (basically, highlife with a steady rhythm), that from Cameroon spread to nearby countries. In Ivory Coast, singer-songwriter Tou-Kone Daouda fused soukous and makossa on Mon Coeur Balance (1978). Nandipo (1974) combined western and African instruments and confronted sociopolitical issues.

Symbolically, disco-music returned to Africa with Discolypso (1979), an electronic calypso-tinged dance sung by Sierra Leone's Mack Bunny (Cecil MacCormack), and later with Rikiatou (1982) and African Typic Collection (1983), dancefloor makossa numbers by Cameroon's Sam Fan Thomas.

Ivory Coast's singer-songwriter Alpha Blondy (Seydou Kone) became the first African star of reggae with Jah Glory (1983).

Jean-Marie Ahanda's Les Tetes Brulees took Cameroon's music into the punk age, with a provocative attitude and a demented and energetic sound. Hot Heads (1991) offered ancient bikutsi rhythms of the rain forest replacing the balafon xylophone with the electric guitars of rock music.

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Senegal

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Orchestra Baobab (1) was the most famous of the Senegalese combos that mixed Cuban music and African music, for example on Pirate's Choice (1982).

Senegal vocalist Youssou N'Dour (3) became a teenage sensation with the band Etoile De Dakar, whose Xalis (1979) established mbalax (Cuban music performed with western instruments and augmented with African polyrhythms) as a major form of dance music. The formidable Immigres (1985) proved what kind of force of nature N'Dour's ensemble was, especially when coupled with the Middle-eastern inflection of his tenor. The stylistic Babel of Set (1990) was perhaps his most emotional and most intricate statement.

The Senegalese band Toure Kunda (1) pioneered the African invasion of Europe with the fusion of western-style melodies and Middle-eastern or reggae rhythms performed on traditional instruments of Freres Griots (1979).

Senegalese vocalist Baaba Maal (1) mixed traditional African instruments with the western aesthetics on Baayo (1991).

Arabs: Maqam

While widely imitated around the world, the classic "maqam" Islamic style, that basically modulate a monophonic melodic figure, was rarely heard outside the Arab world. This musical system, one of the most intricated modal systems in the world, harks back to the heyday of the Arab empire and was organized during the Ottoman empire. The system (which is not an equally-tempered intonation system, and based on roughly 17 notes to the octave, with plenty of regional variations) prescribes a number of maqamat, that can be used either as finished compositions (typically for solo vocal performances) or as blueprints for composition. The maqam scale has, of course, an influence on the tuning of instruments. There are five makamat for the five daily calls to prayer, but there are also dozens of regional maqamat: Turkey's makam system lists more than 200 distinct modes. It is likely that the Ottomans simply unified a body of styles that they collected from Greece to Central Asia. Maqam was best represented by Egyptian girl prodigy Umm Kalthum, who first recorded in 1925, and by Lebanese Nuhad "Fayrouz" Haddad, who first aired in 1950.

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North Africa

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Morocco's gnawa music is a kind of folk music that originated among the Gnawas, descendants of black slaves. It retains central-African characters such as propulsive syncopated beats and pentatonic melodies, and employes instruments such as the sintir lute and the karkabas castanets, besides the human voice. The music usually accompanies ceremonies of healing based on creating an atmosphere of trance. The cult (which is probably related to the voodoo of Haiti and the macumba of Brazil) is centered in the city of Essaouira. A distinguished gnawa musician is Maleem Mahmoud Ghania, who collaborated with jazz giant Pharoah Sanders on Trance of Seven Colors (1994).

Hassan Hakmoun (1) plays the sintir lute and concocts fusion tracks of trancey gnawa, lilting rock and American dance music on albums such as Trance (1993).

Maleem Abdelah Ghania, a virtuoso of the Moroccan guimbri guitar, released the trancey Invocation (2000).

Egyptian-Nubian oud and tar virtuoso Hamza El Din (2) concocted a mesmerizing sound on Al Oud (1965) and Escalay (1971), that displays the haunting interplay of the oud's gentle strings, the extended percussive range and overtones of the tar and his subdued vocals.

Egyptian percussionist Hossam Ramzy (1) drew from the rituals of Arabian Bedouin tribes and from the belly-dance rhythms of the Middle East for Source of Fire (1995).

With Sudaniyat (1997) Sudanese singer-songwriter Rasha (1) concocted a mishmash of jazz, pop, reggae and American dance music that achieved pan-ethnic pathos in the tracks arranged with an orchestra of violins, accordion, saxophones, oud and percussion.

The classic "maqam" Islamic style was best represented by Egyptian girl prodigy Om Kalthum, who first recorded in 1925.

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Ethiopian Music

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Ethiopia, one of the world's most ancient nations, was virtually obliterated (both as a people and as a culture) by the communist dictatorship of Mengitsu between 1974 and 1991. The Ethiopian music that was recorded between 1969 and 1978 was unknown in the rest of the world until the late 1990s. Indeed, the Ethiopian scene of the 1960s was one of the most lively scenes in the world. The country that will later be identified with chronic famine was actually experienced a moderate boom. The soundtrack of that boom was played by countless swing bands in countless night clubs. The censorship and persecution of the 1970s scientifically destroed that scene, and the massive economic collapse that followed Mengitsu's communist reforms sent the few survivors into exile. In 1978, Mengitsu officially banned all vynil recordings of music, and Ethiopian music went into hibernation until the 1990s.

Ethiopian virtuoso vocalist Mahmoud Ahmed, accompanied by the jazzy Ibex Band, penned a form of dance-pop that drew from both African, western and Middle-eastern sources on Ere Mela Mela (1986), that compiled some of his hits from 1975-78.

Ethiopian vocalist Aster Aweke, who relocated in 1982 to the USA, adapted her extraordinary voice to a repertory of soul-jazz-rock, at times gritty like Aretha Franklin at her best, and at times soporific like Sade, on Aster (1990), which actually summarized her eleven Ethiopian cassettes, and Kabu (1992).

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Middle-Eastern Music

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Lebanese oud virtuoso Rabih Abou-Khalil (1) combined jazz improvisation and his Middle-eastern folk traditions (intricate rhythms, ornate melodies) on albums such as Between Dusk and Dawn (1987).

Yemeni-Israeli vocalist Ofra Haza became a star by singing traditional Jewish psalms arranged for the disco by state-of-the-art producers on Yemenite Songs (1987).

Turkish sufi multi-instrumentalist Omar Faruk Tekbilek sold out his traditions to the new-age crowd on Whirling (1994), Mystical Garden (1996), Crescent Moon (1998) and One Truth (1999).

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African music of the 1950s
African music of the 1970s
African disco music
African music of the 1980s